Moral injury in modern warfare: clinical reflections and implications for military psychiatry

Moral injury has emerged as a significant dimension of psychological suffering among individuals exposed to ethically compromising situations in war. Unlike post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), which is primarily organized around fear-based responses to threat, moral injury centers on violations of deeply held moral expectations involving responsibility, agency, and trust. In this clinical reflection, moral injury is approached not as a psychiatric diagnosis, but as a clinical–moral condition arising from difficulty reconciling actions or survival with an internalized moral framework. Drawing on theoretical models and clinical experience in military psychiatry, the manuscript examines how features of modern warfare—including asymmetrical conflict, technological mediation, blurred civilian–combatant boundaries, and fragmented chains of responsibility—shape moral injury and complicate processes of moral repair. These conditions do not create moral injury de novo , but alter how moral responsibility is experienced, narrated, and addressed within military systems. The paper explores the implications of moral injury for mili