Recent findings on astrocyte and microglia impairment and mitochondrial dysfunction in cadmium-induced inflammation: a review

The rapid development of industry has led to severe cadmium (Cd) pollution. Recent studies highlight that heavy metals, such as cadmium, accumulate within the food chain, exacerbating the public health crisis associated with these toxic substances. The health effects of cadmium exposure can manifest in both short-term and long-term contexts, significantly impacting various bodily systems. Cadmium accumulation has been correlated with neurotoxic effects that impair cognitive functions and motor skills, ultimately diminishing quality of life. The neurotoxicity of Cd is complex – it affects neurons, astrocytes, and microglia, resulting in the disruption of central nervous system homeostasis. Cadmium activates microglia and induces inflammation in astrocytes primarily through the TLR4/NF-kB pathway, leading to increased production of TNF-α and IL-6. The neurotoxic effects of Cd are also a result of increased oxidative stress, apoptosis initiation in astrocytes, and Cd-induced changes in mitochondrial function. Chronic Cd exposure may promote the aging of microglial cells. Microglia and astrocytes are in constant communication, a change in the function of one drives the dysfunction of t