Quantum secure threshold password authenticated key exchange scheme for VANET

Abstract Vehicle ad hoc networks (VANETs) enable efficient communication for enhanced safety and convenience. However, due to their open network environment, VANETs are highly vulnerable to attacks, including eavesdropping and vehicle impersonation. Therefore, authentication and data confidentiality are the basic security requirements, achieved through vehicle authentication and establishing secure channels using a shared secret key $$({\textbf{sk}})$$ ( sk ) . The Password-Authenticated Key Exchange (PAKE) protocol generates a high-entropy $${\textbf{sk}}$$ sk using a simple password. However, the traditional PAKE scheme sto