Background Parkinson's disease (PD) is a neurodegenerative disorder characterized by loss of dopaminergic neurons and α-synuclein accumulation. Despite extensive research, there remains a shortage of effective disease-modifying medicines, which is due in part to the failure to translate molecular insights into clinically useful models and diagnostics. Objectives This review will summarize recent developments in the PD pathophysiology and diagnostic, therapeutic and experimental models and will focus on the newer in vivo , in vitro and bioengineered in vivo platforms. Methods Recent studies on animal models, patient-induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC) systems, three-dimensional (3D) bioprinting, neuroimaging, and biomarker discovery have been critically examined to determine their translational potential and limitat
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